in any case but the gravity of the accomplishment is strengthened by the fact that the mongol empire faced a multitude of opponents and locally established dynasties that they managed to defeat in order to seize the entire region so how exactly did they manage to do this the region was split into the territories of multiple kingdoms and dynasties such as dali jinn western shah and southern song all of these entities would one by one fall to the mongols.

as the invaders swept across the region taking everything and everyone under their control as they went so let’s take a look at how it happened the first step was the conquest of western shah the beginning of the initial mongol attempt to seize the territory of the tanggud western shah dynasty came in the early 13th century initially the mongols led by genghis khan started with a series of simple raids into the western shah lands at the time genghis khan was looking to expand and consolidate mongol power.

and in 1205 launched the first raid under the guise of looking for his political rival nilga seng-um who was currently hiding within western shah while the mongol empire wasn’t officially established until the following year genghis khan was already able to begin spreading his authority into western shah with these first border town raids one local noble surrendered to the invaders.

whilst the lands of others were simply plundered more raids followed in 1207 through 1208 before genghis khan was ready to launch a true conquest for his freshly declared empire in 1209 the incursion began and the contemporary emperor of western shah lee angkwan reached out to the neighboring jinn emperor for help but was harshly declined any assistance.

in fighting off the mongols instead one young young ji of the jin dynasty which would soon fall itself to the mongols said of lin angkwan’s request for aid is it to our advantage when our enemies attack each other wherein lies the danger to us as a result the mongols found success quickly and swiftly they were temporarily held up at the keemon fortress but eventually broke.

through nonetheless and continued on to the capital city yin chuan here they resisted once again now for a few months it wasn’t until 1210 that the mongols would eventually force the surrender of lee angkwan and pushed western shah into vassal ship conflict would remain between the mongols and leadership of western shah for the following two decades.

nonetheless until the region finally fell fully into mongol hands after the death of genghis khan in 1227 prior to the total defeat of western shah back in 1211 the mongols had also prompted a war within the nearby jinn dynasty simultaneously when the latter demanded that genghis khan surrender his empire to become a vassal of the jinn empire.

the mongol ruler flatly refused which triggered the subsequent warfare the first major conflict broke out at the battle of yehu ling and brought about a quick mongol victory after that the tide of the war seemed to swing back and forth until the end of 1213 at which point the mongols managed to take the upper hand and began to plunder the whole of the north china plain through early 1214.

the fight would continue on for another two decades though with the mongols slowly taking over the jinn territory piece by piece in the 1230s the mongols gained an advantage in the form of a new ally ironically the southern song who would soon fall victim to the growing empire just the same but for now the song and mongols shared a common enemy and decided to work together to see them fall the final collapse of the jin dynasty came.

after the battle of sang fen shan ended with a sweeping victory for the mongols and the song dynasty joined the fight at the last second to crush the remaining gin resistance in february of 1234 little did the leaders of the southern song know this move would seal their own fate just the same as other territories within today’s china continued to collapse.

The Mongols Conquer China

under the pressure of the invading mongols the final straw came only a year after being assisted by southern song against the jin dynasty the mongols turned on their allies just as the jinn had predicted the mongol conquest of the song dynasty and the final wrap-up of their conquest of china happened in two stages the first began in 1235.

when mongol general hua dani launched an attack on the region of xichuan and within a year the city of zhang yang had fallen to the mongols and their forces continued to increase however the valiant efforts of the song generals and local leaders made the capture of sichuan in its entirety nearly impossible for quite some time various cities would continue to fall to the mongols but the process was not excessively fast nor aggressive despite.

a remarkable number of han chinese defecting to the mongol side and backing the conquest at one point the mongols attempted to negotiate with the song leaders but their envoys were imprisoned upon arrival and warfare ramped up again after stronger incursions and plundering of song territories a ceasefire was finally made and the invasion was temporarily halted but started up again in 1251 after the mongol election that put monkey in power the dali kingdom soon came under mongol control in 1253 and the attack of the song dynasty pushed on by 1258.

southern song was under attack from multiple angles as the mongols began to close in on the final stretch of their conquest some historians theorize that part of what caused the downfall of the song dynasty was their fear of an internal military rebellion which had led them to greatly neglect their armed forces and therefore crumble under the pressure of the mongol attack whether this rings true or not southern song did undoubtedly collapse eventually the contemporary ruler kublai khan founded the yuan dynasty in the 1270s.

which would become the subsequent leader of the chinese region this of course is a vast simplification of the process that allowed the mongols to conquer today’s china as mentioned earlier the mongols had the upper hand because the song dynasty had a lacking military due to concerns about rebellions like they had previously seen take down other dynasties still this factor would only have affected the mongols at the very end of their campaign.

when they finally faced southern song prior to that one detail that may have made their endeavors a bit easier was the fact that what is now the chinese nation was then an amalgamation of multiple individual entities who were often also fighting against each other and supported the mongols against each of their own enemies without a unified front against the mongols the latter was able to take bits of the region piece by piece and with local help.

furthermore as mentioned earlier a fair number of chinese locals had also opted to defect to the mongol side throughout the warfare which only helped to boost the cause even more the mongols themselves were likewise far from incompetent and had some exceptional generals and leaders such as genghis khan himself and lastly referring back to the final fall of the southern song dynasty some historians argue that they did in fact have the means to fight back against the mongols but instead simply opted not to put up a stronger opposition or attempts to recapture lost territories.

as a result of inner corruption and a lack of political maturity while the theories surrounding what made it possible may be widely debated in many cases what we do know for a fact is that the mongols managed to conquer china by setting off a domino effect of conquest after conquest with the help of the surrounding kingdoms and empires one by one taking out the others until all of china was in mongol hands.

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still not every Christian remained as such and some europeans converted bosnia is a perfect example of this curious circumstance this video is sponsored by kamikoto a japanese steel knife brand steel making has been at the beating heart of honshu japan’s largest island for more than eight centuries from traditional techniques with its distinctive layered patterns to iron processing sword.

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around the world kamikoto is currently having their black friday offer and on top of this they are offering our viewers an extra fifty dollars off with the discount code in elegia so use my link in the description or go to kamikoto.com for the extra fifty dollars on top of their black friday sale bosnia and herzegovina is a country in the balkans tucked neatly between croatia serbia and montenegro and essentially surrounded by roman catholics and eastern orthodox christians within bosnian borders.

roughly half of the population is muslim orthodox christianity makes up around 31 percent of the population followed by roman catholics at 15 percent but with so much christian influence from all around why does bosnia still have so many muslims the islamization of bosnia can actually be traced back to before the first entry of the ottoman empire although islam was yet to be introduced to the area bosnia was not quite as Christian.

as any of its neighbors had been and this made it much more open to welcoming a new faith back when the christians began to send missions throughout the balkans in the 9th century bosnia appears to have been a bit neglected during the process at first the sea of rome and the sea of constantinople tried to divide the balkans between each side’s sphere of influence but once the great schism occurred.

in 1054 the presence of catholicism and orthodoxy became more clear-cut and split with the catholics dominating croatia and the orthodox doing the same in serbia the intention was to nominally leave bosnia to the roman catholics but the faith never really had strong enough roots to make the bosnians loyal to the western church and since the eastern church hadn’t tried much either the region ended up being a weird echo of the neighboring faith.

the orthodox church did eventually get a bit of a foothold but the catholics were no longer their only competition by now an unofficial bosnian church had been established that would eventually become fully independent of both east and west and for now began to encroach upon the catholic influence in the center north and west of bosnia this quickly became a problem for rome.

in 1199 the neighboring ruler vukon wrote a letter to pope innocent iii expressing his concerns for what he viewed as a heretical church and people including the bosnian leader kulin himself accusations began to mount against the ruler over the next couple of years as multiple authoritarian figures including the king of hungary himself.

joined the wave of critics kulin soon tried to quell the brewing tensions by reaffirming his loyalty to the catholic faith and practice but not much was done back in the bosnian church to prove that after kulin’s death in 1216 romans sent a new mission into bosnia to try and reconvert the locals but their preaching fell on deaf ears angered by this and backed by the Hungarians.

who were eager to expand their own authority into bosnia the new pope pope pinourius iii called for a hungarian crusade into bosnia as a punishment for what the west still deemed as heresy between 1225 and 1250 multiple crusades would be attempted and shut down by the bosnians while pope gregory ix ousted the catholic bishop of bosnia.

in 1234 for being a supposed heretic in 1252 now under pope innocent iv rome tried to place the bishop of bosnia under the hand of the hungarians which swiftly prompted angered refusal from the locals many bosnians now denounced catholicism and solidified the existence of the independent bosnian church this predictably created even more conflict between rome and bosnia.

which would continue on and off for some time during this era the bosnians became targets of both the western and eastern churches and many were persecuted by the surrounding faiths which viewed them as heretical this created a situation unlike what could be found in the rest of the balkans in bosnia neither rome nor constantinople could be trusted and that meant that for many neither could the faiths this left the bosnian church.

as the only reliable option but the church was still young and with a stained reputation the ottoman turks began their conquest of bosnia in the 1380s and took the first step in introducing islam to the region still just as they had done when the hungarians launched their crusade the bosnians fought valiantly against their invaders their disloyalty to the authority.

The Bosnia become 50% Muslim

in rome and constantinople may have affected the religious life of bosnia but it surely didn’t mean that the locals were open to being conquered subsequently the ottoman campaign lasted for decades as the bosnians simply refused to give in by 1451 the turks were able to set up a military administrative unit but it wouldn’t be until 1460.

that the kingdom of bosnia would really fall into ottoman hands at first this successful conquest was not an automatic trigger for bosnians converting to islam one of the reasons why the ottoman empire had been able to expand as much as it did was because of its ethnic and religious tolerance which would therefore be put into place in capture bosnia as well there was not a mass conversion executed by force or anything of the like but nonetheless.

there would quickly be incentives established for those bosnians who wish to do so as was typical in ottoman vassal states christians were allowed to remain christian but they faced restrictions and risks that muslims did not there were some extreme examples such as with the janissaries but in general these instances could be found in policies relating to taxation and privileges that typically demoted christians to second class citizens trading rights the ability to participate.

in politics and other freedoms were stripped from non-muslims under ottoman rule which worked well to incentivize their subjects to convert this tactic was successful to an even higher degree in bosnia as well likely due to the pre existing circumstances surrounding bosnian christians as the ottomans continued to consolidate their power in the former kingdom more and more bosnians began to stray away from not only the catholic and orthodox churches.

but even the bosnian church the lack of any strong loyalty to one specific faith made it a lot easier for the bosnians to be convinced while some made the change more for the environmental benefits others actually found more appeal in this new faith than they had seen in that of the deceitful rome or overbearing constantinople and even their own local church.

as a result there was a gradual shift towards islam throughout bosnia over the next few centuries as the ottomans remained in control it’s estimated that roughly two-thirds of bosnia were muslim by the start of the 17th century and the influence of islam would remain until the bosnian uprising in 1831 ousted their ottoman conquerors while the exact percentage of muslims in bosnia may have shifted after the turks departed a peculiar thing happened no one tried to re-christianize the bosnians even when the austro-hungarians annexed bosnia.

in the early 20th century everyone had more or less given up on the whole mission and conversion ordeal and when the december constitution solidified bosnian freedom of religion that was essentially the end of that bosnia’s muslim population was there to stay to recap the reason why bosnia is seen as a muslim nation and does in fact have a large muslim population is mostly due to the ottoman era but also connected to the relationship that the nation shared with the christian east and west being labeled.

as heretics by both sides of your faith would be greatly dissuading and it’s not easy to start your own church the people of bosnia learned these lessons first hand throughout history this left the nation much more open to the concept of considering or even converting to a new religion and when you add to that the option of gaining back your rights and freedoms as a class citizen it doesn’t seem surprising at all that islam became the leading influence in ottoman bosnia.

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after centuries of dominating land around the globe? The creation of this Monarchy may have foreshadowed its later decline into extinction. In 1469, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile married, despite both coming from modest backgrounds that forced the young couple to use loans simply in order to afford their wedding ceremony overcoming the obstacle of finances that would later plague and doom their now budding empire.

The 18 and 17-year-old monarchs’ union marked an important pillar for the foundation of the Spanish Monarchy. While the marriage formed a personal union between Aragon and Castille, and united the economic, religious, and military aspects of their joined Iberian territory, it did not form a totally unitary style of authority spanning over all of the empire’s claimed possessions.

In fact, the monarchy did not fully take on the structure of an empire until the Spanish Habsburgs came to power at the start of the 16th century, and this formation was further solidified by the Spanish Bourbon rulers later on. The monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella was fairly admirable and a solid start for the new-formed union.

Many governmental reforms, such as with the judicial system and tax administration, brought about remarkable improvements, as did the abolishment of serfdom, updated infrastructure, and other changes made by the young leaders. This foundation was not as bad as one might expect from an empire that collapsed as the Spanish did.

Nevertheless, the decay of the large European power began long before the inevitable fall itself… The main problems were the poor decisions made by Spanish governments during the decades. Spain was a global superpower, and as other big empires, the external threat wasn’t the main issue. In a case of a military defeat, such an empire will not crumble.

if everything was in order at home, having the resources and the power to maintain its hegemony and to strengthen itself in a few years. The biggest problem for the Spanish Empire started from within … Around the middle of the 16th century, Spain’s economy at home was starting to struggle… Overseas, in contrast, the empire was still on a wave of vast expansion and had not yet hit a rut in that regard.

Still, back in Europe, things were not going so well. Expansion-wise, the empire was doing quite alright. With Charles the Fifth seizing the throne, the empire was technically expanded, without the use of military conquest, over southern Italy, Austria, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire.

But yet somehow, despite this superficial success, the economy was in a decline. One theory as to why this odd contradiction existed lies in the laid-back approach that the empire took in managing its overseas possessions. While the new colonial territories of the Spanish Empire provided new opportunities for the exploitation of natural resources and for trade around the world, the empire was lax with its subjects and did not ask for much.

What they did ask for, such as a share of their colonies’ mining earnings, in addition, was often withheld. Furthermore, the Habsburgs had hoped to maintain a state monopoly and closed mercantile system, but more or less failed. Instead, they set their empire up for economic hardship. In an attempt to counteract their rapid fall behind the industrial and economic progress of their Dutch, English, and French European neighbors.

The Spanish Empire collapse

The Spanish Empire began to allow and almost embrace illicit commercial activity that had any potential to bring in money for the crown. During the reign of Charles V, military conflict with France, the Ottomans, and German states drained the Spanish fund drastically. The emperor became desperate, having to take loans from German and Genoese banks, meanwhile hoping to tax his subjects more to try and recover the lost finances.

While he originally turned to the Netherlands and Italy with these taxes, he was unable to maintain them for long, and eventually had to target Spain itself. This caused more damage at home, as Spain’s taxes were hiked and Castile took the brunt of it. Part of this new tax structure included the Alcabala, which differed from a normal sales tax as it could be applied to any transaction at any point in the process of a product moving to market and afterward.

It also put a 10% tax on the transfer of all property, personal or otherwise, and all assets. The system was self-destructive and many notable figures within the empire, such as Cardinal Jimenez even attempted to convince Emperor Charles to remove the harmful taxation, but due to the revenue it brought in, the monarch refused and even added more taxes including the cruzada, the terces, and the servicio.

This plan began to implode on itself, as the increased taxes also sparked an increase in tax evasion. Some tax-gatherers would even be murdered, while other citizens simply found more subtle means of avoiding payment. Many farmers began to emigrate to the Americans in a desperate attempt to avoid the draining taxes. Others realized that government employees were free of taxes, which caused a skyrocket in the number of such workers.

One Spaniard even wrote that there were a thousand employees where 40 would suffice. Noblemen were also exempt from many taxes, prompting other desperate peasants to join their more underground lifestyle. By the end of Charles’ time as emperor, the region of Aragon in particular was actually paying fewer taxes than it had before the new system had been implemented.

As if this new predicament wasn’t enough to shake the empire’s foundation, the Spanish monarchs were now also faced with the challenge of a Dutch revolt in their Netherland colony. The Dutch were furious with the Spanish Empire for neglecting both their needs and problems and for implementing some of the new, damaging taxes from Spain now in the Netherlands as well.

In addition, there was the factor of rising Protestantism, particularly Calvinism, in the Netherland region, that directly conflicted with the Spaniards’ strong Catholicism. This revolt sparked a war not just between the Dutch and the Spanish, but even more so between the Spanish and the French, who were eager to join anyone in a campaign against Spain.

This war was expensive and long-lasting. The Dutch did gain full autonomy from the Spanish Empire in 1581 as the Dutch Republic, but conflict between the now competing powers continued deep into the 17th century. As taxes continued to rise, so did tensions and dissatisfaction within the empire. In 1640, Portugal, which had only been united with Spain in 1580, erupted into rebellion and eventually declared its own independence from the Spanish Empire.

This jolted the European holdings of the Spaniards and many more of their semi-autonomous territories began threatening their own revolts, and some regions throughout Italy, Flanders, and France even broke free. Adding fuel to the already raging fire, the new issuance of copper coins triggered inflation in 1641, which was counteracted with a messy anti-inflationary reform the following year.

At this time, as stated by a French envoy to Spain, “It would be difficult to describe to its full extent the disorder in the government of Spain.” By the 18th century, the Bourbon monarchs, who replaced the Habsburgs when they were unable to produce another heir, attempted to mend the issues arising within their empire, but they were undermined by their own thirst for war and further expansion.

At this point, Protestantism was spreading like wildfire and the Spaniards were inspired to fight back in the name of Catholicism, as well as feeling compelled to directly oppose the Ottoman Empire’s advances as they too hoped to expand their influence. This uptick in warfare cost money, and the Spanish Empire lacked a surplus of finances.

Hoping to counteract this problem, the Bourbon monarchs aimed to reestablish a Spanish monopoly as had been attempted before, but they were stopped by the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 which ended the War of Spanish Succession. The empire tried to offset this blockade by rolling out strict new trade and commerce reforms both at home and overseas, which eventually sparked a war with the British.

in the late 1700s, demonstrating the never-ending chaos that had been created. Some local political writers even recognized the growing monetary problems and sent letters to the crown, suggesting that “royal expenditure must be regulated, the sale of office halted, the growth of the church checked. The tax system must be overhauled, special concessions must be made to agricultural laborers, rivers be made navigable and dry lands irrigated.”

Furthermore, the authors even pointed out directly the empire’s “humiliating” dependence on foreign nations. But it was too late. Because of these internal problems, the territories of in Americas were pretty much neglected as they were a very good stream of gold and silver and not a territory to be more populated and incorporated more under Spanish Authority.

The Spanish Administration in the Americans was inferior to the English Administration, as the new English and later British Territories had a rapid growth in population due to liberal immigration policies, attracting large proportions of German and French people. Meanwhile, the Spanish territories had a slow growth due to greater emphasis on military conquest, many early failures to establish permanent settlements and poor relations with Native Americans.

At the start of the 19th Century, Napoleonic France invaded Spain, and this was the fire that sparkled the revolutions in the Americas. The other vice-royalties rebelled as their home nation was too weak to have the reins and it was clear that the Spain was just a shadow of its former self. The revolutions had success and it was clear that Spain wasn’t able to fight them. In just a few years they lost almost all of their American possessions and at the end of 19th Century after the Spanish American War they lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and The Philippines, marking the official end of the empire.

The sole reason for the collapse of the Spanish Empire was essentially ill-management by the monarchs and possibly overconfidence of their ability to maintain stable colonial territories. In less simple terms, money, or lack thereof and poor judgment.

 played a hugely significant role in the humiliating fall of an empire with so much potential at its start. Still, finances were not on the side of the Spaniards and it seems that, somehow, the foreshadowing of Ferdinand and Isabella’s wedding would come to life in spite of every desperate reach to overcome it.

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which at one point possessed authority covering roughly 25 percent of the world’s land surface even so no empire or other worlds player has been able to rule over the entire globe but that didn’t stop others from trying to gain more influence imperial germany was one of those ambitious empires the germans just united in the second half of the 19th century and gained vast respect from the rest of the continent and the world.

as a scientific and industrial superpower racking up 20 nobel prizes between 1901 through 1918 alone spanning the categories of medicine chemistry physics and literature the year before the outbreak of world war one imperial germany also boasted the largest economy in continental europe and placed only third behind the united states and the british empire on the world scale with a robust military and rapidly prospering home status.

the german empire was ready for even more success and power and that is exactly what they would aim to take 1914 the first world war erupts imperial germany a longtime ally of the austro-hungarian empire since the establishment of the dual alliance in 1879 was quick to enter the conflict on august 1st with its declaration of war.

on russia and shortly dragged france into the dispute with a second declaration on august 3rd per the german’s pre-established war plan russia was not actually a primary focus and germany instead invaded belgium triggering great britain to declare war on the germans only one day after the second german declaration of war this explosion of discord triggered the start of imperial.

germany’s infamous schlieffen plan which later earned its name from the prominent german field marshal alfred von schliefen this meticulous design had actually been devised almost a decade prior and was meant to be a plan to win a large-scale war particularly against the french third republic the strategy was to cross through belgium and luxembourg instead of directly into france.

through its shared border with germany and create a decisive victory by attacking the french flank and rear the offensive would be split into a wing center and left wing the german first second and third armies would make up the right wing with the left wing consisting of the sixth and seventh armies and the center rounding out the strike with the fourth and fifth armies.

the assumption of the germans was that this plan could be executed fairly quickly in an estimated six weeks or so and that the russians would be slow enough in mobilizing their own troops that a smaller german defensive would be enough to hold off their eastern enemy in the meantime in the case that the schlieffen plan worked exactly or well enough as expected imperial germany’s next move would be to execute the september program.

Germany plan to “Conquer the World”

which was an even more extensive plan for german expansion this second plan was created at the start of world war one by chancellor theobald von private secretary kurt reidzler this new set of goals established a bold plan for german expansion in and outside of the european continent and would have been the start of immense growth for the empire the september program was scheduled to go as follows first the shiflam plan would result.

in a definitive victory for germany and france would be forced to give up chunks of their territory up north and along the dunkirk coast france would also pay war reparations totaling 10 billion german marks in addition to paying off germany’s national debt subsequently wrecking the french economy next france would also be forced to destroy.

its own northern forts in an effort to partially disarm itself furthermore belgium would at minimum be annexed by germany or in another case become a german vassal state whilst also seceding certain eastern portions of its territory and providing military bases for germany luxembourg would then become a member state of imperial germany the russian empire’s lands would be re-established with some buffer states such as poland and other territories.

in the east being formed under german authority belgium france the netherlands denmark austria-hungary the buffer states as well as potentially sweden norway and italy would create a new economic association completely dominated by the german empire germany would massively expand its colonial power particularly by seizing french and belgian colonies in africa and aiming to gain a larger influence in the region.

than the british while opting to not necessarily take any british possessions lastly the netherlands must voluntarily come into a closer union with imperial germany in reality what actually happened was more than a small disappointment for the germans chiefly the schlieffen plan failed for one thing the speed at which the germans intended to advance on france was unobtainable and the enemy forces put up a better fight than had been anticipated which stalled the german troops.

even further there was also mistakes made throughout the execution of the plan and it finally resulted in a withdrawal the strategy seemed genius on paper but ultimately flawed in actuality because it relied on perfect and unrealistic execution that simply could have not been achieved in the heat of war the result of this failure meant that germany was now unable to enact.

the september program and instead got the one thing they wished to avoid a two-front war the russians had mobilized their troops more rapidly than the germans planned for which meant that they would be facing off with the one minimal army that had been left to defend germany from the east troops from the west had to be diverted and all of imperial germany’s hopes of expansion were rapidly dissolving as they became deeply entwined.

in an uphill battle that they had expected to avoid the quick victory that the germans had planned for was now a dream of the past and so was the september program this wasn’t the german empire’s first time failing to obtain a goal they had set for expansion and conquest though kaiser wilhelm ii made plans to invade the united states back in 1897 through 1903.

even if this plan was unrealistic his goal in this instance was not necessarily to conquer the united states but instead to weaken the country economically and politically so the germans could install their own more powerful influence over the caribbean south america and pacific oceanic regions instead the idea was considered by various junior officers and different versions of a plan were made three specifically known simply as plan one plan two and plan three but nothing could be solidified and the scheme was eventually abandoned.

in 1906 without even a single attempt at execution essentially in the best case scenario germany would have at one point or another expanded its empire across europe and the surrounding continents the goal of the imperial army was widespread influence and dominion and had things gone differently in the first world war it’s very possible that the september program would have been only the start of germany’s conquests.

though there was no immediate or clear plan for world domination imperial germany’s schemes intending to expand not only through europe but in their african colonies as well was an ambitious aim and more likely than not would have been step one not the final step still european dominion and growing colonies proved possible but imperial germany simply fell short.

after the failure of the war plan in the west the german empire had great potential for gaining more and more influence and that was even more visible in the second world war but during the first one the imperial power crumbled as their global dreams shattered with them.

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Crossing modern-day Gibraltar, the channel that divided Hispania and North Africa, Ziyad led his army into the peninsula and along the banks of the Wadi Lakku river. Upon entering Hispania, the Umayyad troops clashed with Roderic and his own, resulting in a victory for the Muslim invaders. During the early stages of the conquest, King Roderic was actually killed in battle against Tariq ibn Ziyad,

which the latter had not really been expecting. To Ziyad’s pleasant surprise, the loss of their king would have pushed the local troops into a downhill spiral. The Umayyad’s were able to fully seize power throughout the Iberian Peninsula in 718 and established the region as a province under the Umayyad Caliphate with Córdoba as the new capital.

This organization of territory remained until halfway through the 8th century, after the Umayyad Caliphate was toppled by the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate in 750. By 756, the remaining Umayyad leader, Abd al-Rahman I, outright refused to acknowledge the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate. Instead, he managed to depose the Abbasid rulers in the area and proclaimed the capital of Umayyad Iberia, Córdoba, to be an independent emirate, known as the Emirate of Córdoba.

Much to Rahman’s pleasure, he was able to do so without much pushback, and he and his descendants became the rulers of this new Emirate for many decades to come. While these emirs technically only ruled over Córdoba itself, many of them actually extended their authority throughout more of the peninsula.

The political situation throughout the Emirate of Córdoba and the surrounding parts of the peninsula remained more or less uneventful for the first century and a half. There was, however, a proactive decline in the power and stability of the emirate that became glaringly apparent around the time that the new emir, Abd al-Rahman III, took power in 912.

Rahman was not willing to give up his authority or territory quite yet though. His first mission, which he succeeded at, was to consolidate power not only within the Emirate of Córdoba, but across the whole of the peninsula or al-Andalus, and even extending to some parts of North Africa. While the emir was triumphant with this, it did not entirely solve the instability within his territory.

Riots and discord remained to a high degree, and there was outside pressure from the nearby Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and Fatimid Caliphate in Tunis, which made Rahman realize that more must be done to solve the problem. Hoping to be able to directly combat both internal and external threats at the same time, the emir of Córdoba opted to give himself a promotion of sorts.

In 929, Rahman III proclaimed the Emirate of Córdoba to now be the Caliphate of Córdoba, with him as the caliph. It’s important to recognize that this decision was more than just a mild political move. The Caliph of the Muslim world was supposed to be the entirety of the Muslim community. This meant that for anyone to deem themselves “Caliph”, they were taking on an enormous political and religious title and responsibility. Furthermore, there was not supposed to be more than one caliph.

This put Rahman in direct opposition to the Fatimids and Abbasids, who had already been primary enemies to each other for some time. The claim to the title for Rahman was only partially beneficial as well. While the Muslims in Al-Andalus recognized his authority and right to the caliphate, seeing themselves as being closer to Muhammad than the alternative caliphates, other Muslims outside of the reach that the Caliphate of Córdoba had gained were not so pleased.

The Caliphate of Cordoba Collapse

Nonetheless, due to the new local unity and acknowledgment of Rahman’s declaration, turning the emirate into a caliphate, Rahman and his people found great prosperity. Rahman III in particular was a great acquirer of triumph throughout his reign. The caliph managed to unite the entirety of al-Andalus through a combination of military action and peaceful diplomacy, meanwhile also fighting back against his new rivals from the Fatimid Caliphate.

as they attempted to pass through Morocco and invade the lands of the Caliphate of Córdoba. Rahman furthermore increased diplomacy between his caliphate and the North African Berber tribes, alongside the Christian rulers throughout Europe, including building a relationship with Constantinople. Riding his wave of success and continuing his momentum, Rahman was also able to drastically improve the economy within the Iberian Peninsula, as compared to its numbers during the reign of Rahman II.

The caliphate was now almost running completely on its own. Thanks to the work of Rahman III, the administrative duties to maintain al-Andalus became incredibly easy. This worked out wonderfully for Rahman’s son, Al-Hakam The Second, who took over for his father upon his death in 961. With Al-Hakam as the new Caliph of Córdoba, the caliphate continued to thrive and maintain positive relations with their European and North African neighbors.

With his territories functioning so smoothly on their own, Al-Hakam was even able to place a majority of his responsibilities on his advisors, and instead spent the bulk of his time invested in scholarly activities. The state of Al-Andalus and the Córdoba caliphate was possibly at the best it had ever been. Scholastically, economically, and politically, the Iberian Peninsula was prospering.

While this period was vastly enjoyable, as was most of the 10th century for Al-Andalus, it would not last forever, and the end was unfortunately soon Before Al-Hakam died in 976, he had chosen his young son to become his successor. The issue with this decision though was the minor age of Al-Hakam’s son. The unprepared, 10-year-old boy was not equipped in any form to take over the caliphate, but it had still been decided by the previous caliph nonetheless, and his top advisor.

Almanzor, had pledged loyalty to young Hisham the Second already Almanzor had no option other than to declare Hisham the new caliph upon his father’s passing, which proved to be a disastrous mistake… The Caliphate of Córdoba was now at the start of a tragic decline. Hisham himself was not entirely responsible for this new, unfortunate trajectory, of course. Given that he was a mere child, the job of ruling the caliphate fell predominantly upon.

the shoulders of Almanzor and the caliph’s mother, Subh. While these two were not flat-out horrible, they were still not able to maintain the prosperity that the earlier rulers had been able to. Focused mostly on preventing and removing any signs of opposition to the young caliph, Subh and Almanzor suddenly began letting Berbers immigrate into al-Andalus from North Africa in hopes of increasing their own level of support within the peninsula.

While this may have worked to an extent, it was not as successful of a solution as Almanzor and Subh had hoped it to be. The authority that the caliph held began to diminish at a startling pace. Local revolts and foreign threats became more and more abundant. When a coup d’etat erupted in 1009 and resulted in the assassination of Almanzor’s son, Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo, the pace of Córdoba’s decline greatly increased.

The Fitna of al-Andalus, a time of great inner strife and civil war, broke out in response to the assassination of Sanchuelo, and the competitors for the throne that Almanzor and Subh had tried to eradicate began to come out of the woodworks. The Hammudid Dynasty was a sudden new adversary as well, with multiple invasions being launched into al-Andalus throughout the instability of the Fitna. Now under the weak rule of Hashim The Third, the Caliphate of Córdoba was crumbling.

The once-powerful and united entity was breaking apart into more and more factions, and a total collapse was inevitable. Hashim knew that it was too late to turn back the clock, and in 1031, the entire caliphate split up into a group of Taifas or smaller, independent structures all across the Iberian Peninsula. Now, all that really remained of the Caliphate of Córdoba, once the Emirate of Córdoba, was the little Taifa of Córdoba.

The ending of the Emirate had been a good thing, as it meant that the entity of Córdoba was then being upgraded to the high and mighty title of a caliphate. But, the downfall of the caliphate itself was an entirely different story. Córdoba and all of al-Andalus had their competition and adversaries from the start, and although a series of remarkable caliphs were able to not only maintain but grow their young caliphate, the existence of it was bound to succumb to the outward and inward pressure eventually

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in determining the reason for england’s colonial efforts a summary of these justifications can be found in the 1584 work of richard hacklet known as the discourse on western planning haklut claims that english colonization of the new world would be not only to the benefit of england but furthermore to the benefit of god he made a common argument.

that protestant england needed to rescue north america from the catholic world and the current hold that spain had over much of the continent of course england and spain had more than just a religious rivalry but the point was often a compelling one nonetheless furthermore haklut acknowledged the obvious economic and social possibilities that new world colonies would provide since there was currently.

an overabundance of job and landless vagabonds plaguing england haklut stated that the establishment of a colony would provide more land and job opportunities for these homeless men and women moreover the expansion of trade alone would produce great profit for england and the resources the new world may provide were vast these points made by Richard.

hey cloot were echoed throughout england and combined with the visible success of the spanish beginning to produce envy from the english a decision to enter the new world was made queen elizabeth had chosen to opt for a less typical route of joining the colonial world by sponsoring sailors known as sea dogs that participated.

in a form of piracy identified as privateering two such sailors by the names of john hawkins and francis drake were sent by the queen to wreak havoc on the spanish in america the privateers and the latter in particular plundered spanish ships and raided caravans even as far as the coast of peru this unprompted attack greatly angered spain and the discord between the nations drastically increased even further after england had the catholic mary queen of scots executed in 1587.

the following year king philip ii of spain decided to retaliate in what would become the largest scale invasion to yet occur with the goal of annihilating the british navy and boasted 18 000 soldiers 8 000 sailors and 130 ships the spaniards made no mistake in targeting the british navy which played an extremely crucial role in the nation’s trade and colonial power while the spanish ships notably outnumbered the british.

the latter were better equipped with more suitable ships for such a clash and quickly beat back their attacker the spanish fleet had to turn back heading for the netherlands to gather reinforcements but an unexpected storm ripped through the remaining armada ships leaving the english as the clear victors now it was time to focus on the colonies.

as the 16th century came to a close some attempts had already been made by england to establish colonies in north america but so far none had succeeded sir humphrey gilbert was one of the men in charge of such efforts and had hoped to create a colony in newfoundland but had miserably failed john white in 1587 had also made a similar attempt on roanoke island alongside 150 other english colonists but the colony quickly ran out of supplies and resources white returned to England.

The English Colonize America

where he intended only to gather what he needed for his colony before heading back but he ended up trapped in his native land for over a year due to the current situation brought about by the spanish armada when white was finally able to return to roanoke island he found his colony completely abandoned and his efforts in vain.

when the 17th century began with still no solid english colony in the americas queen elizabeth passed away in 1603 leaving the future of england’s colonial efforts in the hands of king james the following year peace was made between england and spain and in 1606 king james established the virginia company beginning a new wave of efforts to find colonial success in america three ships in particular the discovery the susan constant and the godspeed set off for the east coast arriving at the james river in spring of 1607.

the colonists reached the fairly uninhabited region of virginia which they would shortly name jamestown this would become the first permanent english colony in america contemporarily king james had also granted a charter to the plymouth company but their popham colony was disappointingly short-lived the jamestown colonists did fare better.

than those from popham given that their colony didn’t collapse but the endeavor was still a harrowing one nonetheless by 1617 only 351 of the initial 17 000 colonists remained alive the men had been widely unprepared for the life of hard physical labor and the land itself was not as easy to utilize as they had hoped many starved.

while others fell ill and if it had not been for the help of the local native american tribe known by the colonists as the powhatan confederacy the english may have all but perished powhatan’s roughly 10 000 strong tribe was incredibly efficient at utilizing the difficult terrain for hunting and farming throughout the chesapeake with more than enough food and potentially benefit to gain from the colonists manufactured food the natives were fairly welcoming and greatly assisted.

the sickly englishmen in their first winter in the years to come though matters were not so simple the english continued to starve and perish from disease even despite help from the natives as 400 new settlers arrived in jamestown in 1609 as the general well-being of the colony continued on a downward spiral their relationship with the natives also began to deteriorate occasional.

guerrilla wars started to break out between the colonists and powhatan’s tribe and the english were still starving the fate of jamestown seemed scarcely hopeful no major improvement appeared until 1614 at which point the daughter of powhatan pocahontas married an english colonist by the name of john rolfe this at least began to ease tensions between the english and natives.

the young colony also started to see some new changes and leadership as the discovery of what would be their savior tobacco the jamestown colonists were rescued by a boom in demand being native to the new world and immensely popular from the start of its first exports to europe within 40 years the jamestown exports were amassing 15 million pounds per year.

the colony had suddenly gone from a dwindling starving group of migrants to a rapidly growing colonial power in need of more men for the increasing number of jobs the new market was providing as jamestown’s success kept building the colonists began expanding the english territory beyond its original borders.

which unfortunately brought them back into conflict with the natives powhatan’s brother succeeded the chief upon his death in 1622 and vowed to rid his land of the english on march 22nd 1622 he and his tribe attacked the colony and massacred 347 colonists in a single day this however in the minds of the english justified years of fierce brutality the new method of how the english would continue to colonize america was vastly different.

than how their competition both the french and spanish had done the same for the english they had received a bit of practice to sharpen the skills they would use in america back when they had begun their efforts to take ireland from the native catholics as the english decided that they no longer needed to put much effort into co-existing or assimilating.

the natives into their new colonies they began utilizing violence against the native people to seize their land and take control and between war and disease it wasn’t long before the native americans had been disastrously affected there was also a building distinction in the eyes of the colonists between themselves and other peoples.

which made them even more determined to establish an english dominance throughout north america and as their positive view of the natives quickly decayed the pre-existing supremacy of english protestantism over the spanish catholics in the minds of the former had now stretched beyond religion and they had the power to enforce these ideas the english also had the power and means to establish more colonies with even greater success.

than they had so far achieved eventually virginia massachusetts new york new jersey pennsylvania delaware maryland connecticut south carolina north carolina new hampshire rhode island and lastly georgia would make up the english 13 colonies which would later form the united states of america if it had not been for the newfound tobacco industry in the original colony.

it’s likely that the english would have never been able to colonize north america permanently and the pure demoralization may have prevented any further success or even attempts at trying again but instead the english were able to establish multiple booming colonies whilst also bringing an impressive profit for the crown and boasting enormous economic success.

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The origins of the sovereign state, at least according to Andorra itself, can be traced all the way back to the time of Charlemagne. The story goes that when the Frankish king set up a series of buffer states between Christian France and Muslim-controlled al-Andalus, Andorra was one of the states to serve as part of this Marca Hispanica buffer, and is the only remaining state of the region as well.

When the 9th century came around, Charlemagne’s son ,Charles the Bald, had taken his place and decided to name the Count of Urgell as the new authority over Andorra. The power was then passed to the Diocese of Urgell shortly thereafter. Two centuries after the state fell under the count’s rule, Andorra’s leader, the Bishop of Urgell, began to face outward threats from his neighboring lords and subsequently requested.

the protection of the Catalan noble, the Lord of Caboet, whose title would later be transferred to the Count of Foix due to a marriage in 1208 which crowned him the new heir. This in itself triggered further disputes over who had a true claim to authority when it came to little Andorra and the discord continued until the early end of the 13th century. On September 8, 1278, the first Paréage of Andorra was signed in Lleida, Cata-lonia,

which formed an agreement between the Count of Foix and the Bishop of Urgell. Count Roger-Bernard III and Bishop Pere d’Urtx would become joint rulers over the state of Andorra, sharing equal power and dominion. A second document was signed roughly a decade after the first, this time to clarify some of the contents of the previous agreement.

After this second signing, the first real set of basic laws in Andorra had been established and would remain until the future ratification of the Constitution One condition of these new laws was that Andorra now owed a yearly tribute to both co-rulers of the state. This was generally paid in the form of four hams, forty loaves of bread, and wine.

Despite being landlocked and politically split between two drastically larger neighbors, Andorra was in a pretty good position by this point. Its borders, which still remain today, had been established, it had a set of laws, and it had two powerful leaders. This stability would carry on for centuries, though some changes came in the 1500s.

In 1505 specifically, Andorra fell under Spanish rule when Germaine of Foix married Ferdinand V of Castile. Germaine’s descendants would maintain authority over Andorra nonetheless, as confirmed by Emperor Charles V in 1519, leading to the curious events which followed King Henry III of Navarre and Count of Foix’s rise to power.

History of Andorra Country

In 1589, Henry III took the throne of France under the name of Henry IV and a couple of decades later, in 1607, he transferred his lordship of Andorra to the French state as opposed to the Germaine line as it was. This protection and leadership from the French government lasted over a century, much to the pleasure of the people in Andorra. They greatly benefited from the guidance of such a mighty nation as one of their co-rulers, which became a problem rather abruptly in 1793.

The contemporary French Revolutionary Government did not seem as fond of Andorra as their previous leaders had been. In fact, the new authorities flat-out refused to accept the yearly tribute from Andorra and renounced its suzerainty completely, which greatly disturbed the Andorran people.

While not particularly anti-Spanish, the Andorrans still were not happy with the thought of becoming exclusively ruled by Spain. Nonetheless, France had made its decision and held strong to it When the Napoleonic Wars erupted in the 1800s, Andorra managed to stay neutral despite both France and Spain being involved in the conflicts.

Still unwilling to give up their relationship with France, the Andorrans even began to petition for Napoleon to restore the co-principality status of their nation. Spain was not opposed, and Napoleon eventually agreed in 1806. The renewed French co-leadership of Andorra was a huge victory for the small nation, although it didn’t stop France from annexing it around 1813, alongside Catalonia.

The latter was divided into four new departments and Andorra was then placed into the department of Sègre, or the district of Puigcerdà. The next significant period of Andorran history came with the onset of the first world war, though more in theory than in actuality. Officially, Andorra did not engage on behalf of either side in World War One. A few volunteers from the nation did fight in the war, but the state itself opted to stay out of conflict once again.

Later on, in 1958, there were some claims made by American newspapers that said Andorra had, in fact, declared war on Germany back in 1914 and simply never signed a peace treaty until that year, but these assertions proved to be blatantly false. No evidence from the time of the war could be found to support the theory and only found documentation to prove the contrary.

Between the first world war and this later debacle, France had actually invaded and this time occupied Andorra back in 1933 in response to social unrest brought on by upcoming elections. A period of local chaos broke out the following year when a man by the name of Boris Skossyreff declared that he was Boris The First, the sovereign prince of Andorra, making him an enemy and direct threat to France and Spain.

The latter had the man arrested on July 20, 1934, and expelled him from the region. This was followed by a time of great concern on the side of the French as the Spanish Civil War erupted and raged on. The French left a garrison in Andorra as a precaution in case their own authority were to come under attack. Luckily, this never happened and the co-principality maintained its leadership from both sides.

When World War Two rolled around, Andorra yet again maintained its non-combative stance. It did, however, get involved in the conflict to some extent this time. Andorra became an important route for smuggling French Resistance fighters out of France and created an easy path from Spain to France. After the war ended, Andorra began to form new diplomatic relations with nations further from its borders than its neighbors of Spain and France.

Political reforms also began to take place as the Andorran people started to get a glimpse of life outside of their own country, and the Andorran government was turning into a more autonomous organism throughout the 1980s. By 1993, the nation became a parliamentary democracy and a new Constitution was established.

While the existence of the co-principality still remained as a part of the Constitution, the authority and political influence of both rulers was vastly reduced. The government reforms that had begun the prior decade continued, now with the legislation of political parties, expansion of civil rights laws, and a new provision for an independent judiciary.

Andorra was also admitted to the United Nations that same year, and had established a customs union with the European Communities, now known as the European Union, two years prior. In 1994, Andorra joined the Council of Europe and continued to build and strengthen bonds with nations all throughout the continent and with the United States of America.

The existence of Andorra as a country is therefore still a bit of a mystery, though an undeniable fact. Its state as a co-principality adds a uniqueness and may contribute to the question of why Andorra exists as its own entity still today. Nonetheless, Andorra has a long history of being an individual, even if not fully independent, state, spanning all the way back to the Charlemange era. After all these centuries, it would make less sense for the small, landlocked nation to dissolve, than for it to continue to exist.

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Scandinavian does not actually equate to Viking, and every Viking was not Scandinavian. Furthermore, the Merriam-Webster definition also seems flawed, as, in actuality, the Viking age did not end until the 11th century – though, to be fair, it was at the very start of this century. So who were the Vikings and what did they do? Records of these people today remain limited, given that most accounts we have of the Vikings came either from their victims.

who would, of course, have some bias in their recounting, or from Scandinavian sources that were not written until centuries after the actual Viking Age.From what we know, the majority of the pirates we refer to today as Vikings came from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, with some others hailing from Finland and Estonia. These people were Norse and differed from the growing number of Christians that surrounded them.

They were generally viewed by the societies they invaded as “uncivilized foreigners”. The goal of the Vikings, as most historians have found, was riches. Their methods, however, were what often deemed them to be greatly uncivilized and dangerous. Although they were not necessarily war-loving or blood-lusting people, they still wasted no time in massacring those who resided in the places they plundered.

Additionally, since the Vikings were not driven by religion and simply wanted to raid targets that would prove easy to access and would provide a plethora of booty, one of their frequent destinations for forays became monasteries, which further pushed the narrative for the horrified Christian Europeans that these people were barbarous savages.

One raid, in particular, often recognized as the commencement of the Viking Age, was then unsurprisingly carried out on a monastery. On June 8, 793, off the coast of Northumberland, the Lindisfarne monastery was stormed by a group of Scandinavian pirates. These Vikings were not intending to destroy the building.

but they did still cause damage throughout their looting of the monastery’s relics and valuable possessions; and even worse, sending a shockwave through the unsuspecting European world, they massacred every monk who stood in their way and sold the survivors into slavery. This was only the start of the new reign of terror that many Europeans would face under the Viking dominance, but things were still not as simple as they may seem.

The Vikings were different than other invaders in multiple regards, with one being the fact that they had absolutely no goals of building an empire or establishing colonies. Remember, these were pirates, not a nation or even an ethnic group. What made a Viking just that was his career of raiding and plundering. So, although the Vikings began voyages to invade and steal from territories.

The Vikings Collapse

throughout Europe and even North America on a regular basis, they had no plans of maintaining any of these lands for themselves. The absolute main focus of the Vikings was always money, and they just didn’t view colonization as a very lucrative route. Instead, these Scandanavian pirates used a combined method of raiding, trading, and slave selling to build up their income and worth.

To really grasp the extent to which the Vikings would go to gain their riches, it may be important to remember that they, at one point, even attempted to sack the holy city of Constantinople itself in 860. The Byzantines were ultimately the more powerful opponent and were able to protect their land and possessions, but the Viking enthusiasm is still evident.

Furthermore, the Byzantines were actually impressed with these foreign invaders, and some Vikings were even hired to join the emperor’s personal guard after the raid ceased. They were also able to set up a few trading towns throughout the region so the Vikings could trade with the Byzantines in the future as opposed to further raids. Shortly after this unexpected success, the Vikings began to realize that they could actually make more money by executing milder raids and essentially ransoming the possessions.

they stole back to the people they stole them from, or allowing themselves to be paid off to avoid raiding some targets, whilst continuing their trade elsewhere. This resulted in the Vikings obtaining the land that would soon become the Duchy of Normandy when the Frankish king was unable to bribe them by any other means of payment.

This led to a group of Vikings staying in Normandy and beginning to assimilate with the French Christian culture. The rest of the Vikings, however, changed trajectory and made their way up to what is now the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland to continue their raiding and trading ways. This directed them to another exception from the overarching goal of taking no land though.

Whether it was their initial plan or not, between 865 and 878, the Vikings not only plundered but conquered the Saxon kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. While these Vikings never really established a true state or centralized government over the occupied territories, they did establish the Danelaw, which gave them some legal power, as well as cultural and linguistic influence,

throughout all three kingdoms. This feat was both impressive and unanticipated, but it was not a long-lived success on the part of the Vikings. In 927, the neighboring kingdom of Wessex launched an incursion into the Viking-occupied region in hopes of reclaiming the Saxon lands. They were successful in this endeavor, and the Kingdom of England was created from the union of the 4 separate entities.

From this point, the Vikings reverted back to their foundational habits, particularly targeting monasteries in Ireland across the way, and capturing some of the inhabitants to sell into the slave-trade as they had previously done with the Slavs and Western monks. When the Scandinavian pirates stumbled across Iceland next though, they did chose to settle the island.

as it was an easy target with no resistance. This is about the time that the Viking Age as a whole began to change. One significant development was the increasing number of Norsemen converting to Christianity, in response to missionary efforts by the Christians and simply being exposed to the religion through their travels. Near the end of the 10th century, the number of converts drastically increased, and a notable amount of these new Christians were of the Scandinavian elite.

While the sudden boom in Christianity was a change for the Viking Age, the only impact it really had on the Vikings’ behavior initially was simply that some began to call their raids Crusades now. At home, however, this new relationship with fellow Christian nations and the religion as a whole seemed to impact the statehood within the Scandinavian nations and began a markedly slow shift toward the countries that make up that region today.

and over time the new nobles and leadership within the area began to crack down on the Vikings’ less civilized endeavors. This was the beginning of the end of the Viking Age. As the culture and lifestyle of the Scandinavians and their pirates began to adapt to the world around it, the Viking life began to fade on its own. In an environment that no longer encouraged it to grow, and moreover tried to prevent it from expanding.

further, the Viking’s influence and power dwindled over the next decades. 1066 is generally marked as the final year of the Viking Age in particular. When Harald III, King of Norway, attempted to invade and seize part of England, his troops were presently crushed by those of the Saxon king, Harold Godwinson, and Harald III himself was killed during the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

This was the last significant Viking invasion of anywhere in Europe and is generally seen as the collapse of the Vikings as they had once been known… So why did this happen? Why did the Vikings collapse? Well, the answer is not as clear as one might hope. Even the Battle of Stamford Bridge was not some type of huge catalyst in the Vikings’ downfall.

Yes, it is usually seen as the official end of the age, but, the Vikings’ way of life had already been fizzling out. The introduction and mass conversion to Christianity might, of all things, be the main factor in this slow fade out, but even more, it was the decision of the new Scandinavian nobility to discourage and eventually put an end to the Viking raids and incursions that really began to seal the coffin.

It was essentially a fairly modest chain of events that in time led to a society that no longer allowed the Vikings’ most prosperous acts to continue, sequentially bringing an end to their lifestyle, culture, and any global influence or power. People would still write about the Vikings for centuries to come, and a slightly skewed view of their legacy has lived on even today. But, nonetheless, the Viking Age came to end almost as easily as it had begun.

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after this period as having only held friendly relations between the two english-speaking nations this recollection would be partly true but not entirely in reality the 20th century included a brief period of tensions so bad between the uk and the us that they almost went to war this video is sponsored by established titles established titles is a project based on historic scottish custom where landowners are referred to as lairds or lords and ladies.

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even get a couple pack for you and your partner where you can get adjoining plots of land click on my link in the description establishtitles.com elegia and use my discount code nelegia10 to become a lord or lady today we all know that the revolutionary war pitted the mighty british empire against the rebellious american colonies this was followed by a stretch of somewhat healthy relations between.

the new nation and its former empire and trade between the sovereign territories became quite profitable political ties were positive as well and even when the friendship was threatened by britain’s war with france in the 1790s the j treaty was effective in staving off any conflict between the unions it wasn’t until the american republicans came to power.

after a decade that relations suddenly soured and eventually led to the war of 1812 following this clash came the monroe doctrine and a few decades of off and on tensions but nothing major occurred beyond the aristic and pig wars which were both bloodless conflicts after the american civil war the strain between great britain and the united states was no better than before and in retaliation many american politicians called for more independence to be granted to the irish

though more likely as an anti-british movement than strongly pro-irish nonetheless these tensions didn’t last too long and began to let up as the brits made efforts to reconcile with the americans and pull out of the region this resulted in the unifying of britain’s canadian colonies into the dominion of canada and softening relations between the british empire and the united states.

as distance was created although some disputes remained all the way up until the outbreak of world war one the english-speaking nations appeared to be on the right track toward a strong alliance during the war the us initially wanted to remain completely neutral although they did continue to trade with any nation whose own roots were not blocked by the british of course america did eventually enter the war on the side of the brits and worked.

in close cooperation with their former enemy and empire the u.s came to british aid in the form of financial and military support and by the end of the war it would seem likely that a strong friendship would have been formed but instead tensions seemed impossible to prevent once more the effects of world war 1 quickly became abundantly evident the british empire was in major debt to the united states owing a whopping 22 billion dollars to its former colonies.

United States plan to fight the British

which the u.s refused to turn a blind eye to germany was also out of contention as a top naval power on the global stage but the united states was closing in on the british royal navy’s numbers furthermore american trade began to encroach upon the brits which was something that historically had not gone unpunished yet the british government knew all too well that especially so soon after the great war it would be foolish to start another conflict with the growing american military.

the goal was to create a stronger alliance as opposed to fueling competition between the rival powers this kept relations between the us and britain fairly cordial despite some suppressed resentment and distrust these hidden feelings were not insignificant though while relations were pleasant enough at face value both sides had some concerns and even considered.

the thought of a new war from the british point of view if a war did break out despite their efforts to avoid it it would likely be related to commercial connections and america’s expanding trade knowing the new height of america’s naval strength and acknowledging that neither side would ever be likely to sit by and allow their trade to be restricted or interrupted by the other as the us had hesitantly done during world war one concerning britain’s decision to block the trade with germany this was the primary concern of the british strictly.

it was assumed that any war would be a product of circumstances and not fully intentional for the americans though the idea of war with another nation in the near future was actually pretty common and even anticipated by some so much so actually that the us had made war preparations for a battle with multiple countries war plan orange warplan green and warplan yellow were some of the strategies in the case that a war was to break out against japan mexico or china this then made it less surprising that the americans concocted war plan red a method for defeating both the brits and canadians if ever necessitated war plan red had one main objective prevent.

the brits from being able to utilize canada to gain an advantage over america the thought was that canada would be an undoubted ally of great britain and would also be used as a launching point for the british troops themselves this prompted the u.s to fear a potential invasion from the canadian border.

and react by planning their own the first step of the plan was to enter canada and capture major cities such as halifax which the americans predicted would be used by the royal navy as an import base during a war with the states the american troops would also target vancouver winnipeg the canadian power plants.

throughout niagara falls region and eventually engage in a full-scale invasion to seize montreal toronto and quebec as well in response the us predicted a small counter-attack by land from the canadians which would likely be mostly focused on protecting the port city of halifax from the american army navy offensive with all of this in consideration.

the americans were fairly confident that if they were able to execute this assault preemptively they would be able to take the upper hand before british troops could even arrive however canada had its own plan knowing that their land forces were dangerously overpowered by the americans as were even the brits the canadians came up with a strategy that could simply buy them time.

until their british allies could come to their aid the aim was to launch a rapid fire assault across the american border and push in as far as they could before running into american troops at this point the canadians would begin to fall back whilst destroying any and all infrastructure they could in order to stall the american counter-attack and imminent invasion the assumption was that by the time.

the americans could arrive at the canadian border the brits would have been able to cross the atlantic and join up with the canadian forces to defend their land this too would have prevented the us from carrying out their own war plan red the catch in all of this though was that the british never seemed to have any plans for mass deployment of troops or ships to support Canada.

in the case of war the royal navy saw the upper hand being with the u.s from the start and felt that it would be a waste to try and defend the vast majority of canadian land the only tactics that were loosely discussed were the aims of attacking the americans from places such as bermuda and the west indies as opposed to waiting for the u.s navy to cross the atlantic which would likely cause a major threat to british trade and could even result.

in a swift british surrender further than this though the brits didn’t seem to feel a need to make an official plan in the same way that the u.s or even canada had luckily for all involved none of these plans were ever needed the canadians even went as far as to burn all copies of their defense plan and the us eventually dismissed war plan red as well when the second world war broke out any hard feelings between the united states and great britain would eventually be swept.

under the rug as an alliance was once again resuscitated this too may have put the whole situation into perspective as the results of world war ii included even closer ties between the former empires and colonies and as far as we know there are no contemporary equivalents for warplane red on either side of the atlantic.

if one is left wondering why this plan never existed to begin with the answer lies in the politics of the times despite the history of these culturally and linguistically similar nations being stained here and there with political disputes and military conflicts the development of rivalry particularly in the form of trade competition appears to be the main driving factor.

in britain’s worries about a potential war and likely played a role in the us’s caution as well still as mentioned earlier america had lined out hypothetical war plans for multiple nations that they were peaceful with at the time so from that side of the atlantic at least they tried to be prepared for any event.

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As the Roman Empire began to fade from the British Isles, the area of modern-day England started to see a wave of migration from Anglo-Saxon Germanic tribes. According to some historians, after the Romans left, the native Britons came under attack from the nearby Picts and Scots and subsequently welcomed some of these Anglo-Saxons in hopes that they would push out the other invaders.

The Germanic peoples were successful in expelling both the Scots and Picts, but they then turned on the native Britons and established their own authority by the start of the 7th century. The new Anglo-Saxon rulers then installed the kingdoms of Essex, Kent, Sussex, Mercia, East Anglia, North-Umbria, and Wessex on the British mainland.

There are minimal records of what happened over the next few centuries throughout these kingdoms, but we do know that it wouldn’t be long before the Anglo-Saxons would face invaders of their own… In 793, a Viking army landed at the Lindisfarne Monastery and raided the sacred building. Their violence and disrespect stunned the Anglo-Saxons, who were unprepared for what these Vikings had in store… By the end of 870, East Anglia fell to the Danish invaders, and Mercia was lost only 4 years later.

As the Vikings seized Northumbria next in 875, Wessex was the only remaining major kingdom under Anglo-Saxon authority. When the current king of Wessex, Æthelred , died, his younger brother Alfred was left to protect his kingdom’s independence. At first, he did so by paying off the Viking aggressors, until he was eventually prepared to lead an army against them.

This culminated in the Battle of Edington, which left the Danes utterly routed and ended their attempts to capture Wessex. A power vacuum in Mercia around the same time resulted in King Alfred also gaining control of the kingdom and instead of establishing a new monarch, he placed an ealdorman in charge. This nobleman would answer to King Alfred himself and kept the King of Wessex as the ultimate authority throughout both regions now, although a part of Mercia would be ceded to the Vikings.

After the death of the King of Wessex and the contemporary leader of Mercia in 911, Edward the Elder and Æthelflæd each became the respective successors. Together, these new rulers began to increase the pressure that had already been put on the neighboring Danelaw, and they both worked to further increase their territories. In 917, Æthelflæd expanded her lands to the north and Edward was able to incorporate all of East Anglia into his kingdom.

As Æthelflæd pushed forward with the expansion, she managed to extend Mercian territory all the way up to York, where the locals decided it would be best to simply pledge loyalty to her as opposed to fighting. Although Æthelflæd shortly died, her daughter, Ælfwynn , was supposed to take her place and continue on the current course.

The England formed

Unexpectedly, though, the Mercian people quickly ousted their new leader and accidentally created the perfect opportunity for King Edward from Wessex to seize all of Mercia not long after. In 918, the Anglo-Saxons continued farther into Danelaw territory and slowly gained more and more land for themselves. By the time of Edward’s death in 924, the newly acquired neighbors of the Anglo-Saxons had all pledged allegiance to the king.

This put the Anglo-Saxons in a confident position as Edward’s son, Æthelstan, took over the kingdom. Around this time, Æthelstan’s sister would marry the local Viking ruler, Sihtric, who still controlled Northumbria. Æthelstan marched on and was finally able to bring the Kingdom of York under his crown as his sister’s husband passed away.

This left Northumbria up for grabs and the king swiftly consolidated it as a part of his kingdom. This is generally the time that most historians view the Kingdom of England as having been created… But, the situation was not exactly so simple. Æthelstan was not done trying to expand his kingdom however he could, and although he did term himself.

the “King of the English” at this point, it was still not quite what we know as England today. In 937, Æthelstan decided to give an invasion of Scotland a chance to see if he could reach his authority even further. The Kingdom of Scotland, or as it was known at the time, Alba, was at a disadvantage against the English and therefore appealed to the other remaining sovereign states for assistance.

This prompted an alliance between Constantine II, King of Alba, Olaf Guth-frith-son, King of Dublin, and Owain, King of Strath-clyde. With King Olaf at the helm, the alliance faced the English at the spectacular Battle of Brunan-burh. Though it is unknown exactly where this battle took place, it is certain that the alliance was severely crushed by the English invaders.

The casualties on both sides were disastrously high, but Æthelstan and the English were without a doubt the victors. It’s believed by many that this clash may have truly solidified the unity of England and stirred up a new sense of nationalism and pride amongst the English people. Nonetheless, it didn’t result in the incorporation of Alba nor Strathclyde into the Kingdom of England, as both stayed independent.

England, on the other hand, would have to prove its ability to do so, The Vikings, though temporarily defeated, would return to the young kingdom at the end of the 10th century. After Æthelstan’s death in 939, the previously defeated King of Dublin, who was a Viking ruler, took immediate advantage of England’s temporary instability.

While King Æthelstan’s half-brother, Edmund, took over the English realm, King Olaf swooped in to reconquer some of the lands that had once been in Viking hands. York was quickly captured and a large chunk of what used to be Northumbria and Mercia was also taken as he strongarmed the English into accepting this annexation. Ironically, when Olaf died in 941 and his cousin, who shared the same name, was transitioning to the throne.

as his successor, Edmund of England jumped on the chance to pay the Vikings back for the invasion. The following year, the middle chunk of annexed land was retaken by the English and in only 2 more years the Vikings were entirely pushed out of Northumbria. This essentially reunited England since the territory was now all under Edmund’s control.

As ambitious as his ancestors, Edmund next invaded Strathclyde, but only took some of its southern territories by the end of the incursion. The rest was given to King Malcolm I of Scotland as opposed to joining England. It once again appeared as though the Kingdom of England had established some stability, but this was once more short-lived.

Edmund was mysteriously murdered in 946, which left his younger brother, Eadred, as King of England. The next year, Eric Bloodaxe from Norway attacked and seized the recently re-incorporated Northumbria, which prompted almost a decade of conflicts over who throughout the Isles would lead Northumbria.

Eventually, the English king was able to once again, and permanently, reclaim the territory on behalf of England. His death soon ended his reign after this victory, and his young nephew, Eadwig, temporarily succeeded him but was quickly deposed in favor of his brother, Edgar. However, this was only a partial deposition, which meant that Eadwig would still hold a small section of the kingdom as a co-ruler. When Eadwig died only 2 years after this decision, Edgar simply took over the whole of England.

Under the reign of King Edgar, known as Edgar the Peaceful, the true foundations of the English kingdom could finally be established. Many reforms were passed and a vast number of the systems and laws that had existed in the Danelaw were actually upheld, in hopes of avoiding any displeasure from the Danish portion of the population.

Peace, unity, and order were the pillars of Edgar’s nearly 2-decade long reign, and his work helped to fully solidify the unity of the young Kingdom of England… The ultimate formation of England was a long and shaky process. From the initial immigration of the Anglo-Saxons into the region to the establishment of their first kingdoms, extending into the invasion and rule of the Vikings, it wasn’t until the Anglo-Saxons began to seize territory from the Danelaw that an inkling of modern-day England could be seen.

After a series of conquering, being conquered, reconquering, and so on, the Anglo-Saxons eventually united the existing kingdoms throughout England. From there, it was merely a matter of establishing solid borders, maintaining their captured territory in order to keep their kingdom physically solid, and eventually, under the rule of Edgar the peaceful, building the foundational laws and structures of what we now know as the Kingdom, or nation, of England.

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